Governing business activity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Administering business action - Essay Example A firm is a course of action of people, assets †both physical, just as money related and a lot of data. They exist to complete different helpful errands in the general public, through creation and dispersion of merchandise and ventures. These undertakings are cultivated by using society’s assets, for example, land, work, capital and giving sufficient benefits to the work done, in kind (Hirschey, 2009). Littler firms are typically overseen by a solitary proprietor, who is responsible for all the key choices made and consequently are bound to rule the choices in support of themselves, by taking choices which are beneficial to them. Therefore, both the present moment just as long haul objectives of a littler firm could be benefit amplification alone. Bigger firms then again, are claimed by the investors yet oversaw by business directors who are accountable for all key dynamic inside the organization. In this manner, when contrasted with littler firms, the bigger firms may go amiss from the regular benefit amplification objective, to seek after other similarly significant objectives, for example, reasonable turn of events, improving nature of their items, ecological insurance and so on which are in the bigger enthusiasm of the general public all in all. Be that as it may, such objectives are only momentary destinations, as targets other than benefit expansion may serve the network ever ywhere, except it doesn't help the firm in supporting its serious situating in the business. Moreover, under the Corporate Social Responsibility plan, which has as of late increased across the board ubiquity and acknowledgment, it is viewed as mandatory for firms, to contribute towards improvement of the general public in general as opposed to seeking after their childish thought processes of gaining benefits. Yet, as indicated by Sternberg (2000, Pp. 41): â€Å"The Social Responsibility of any business is to build its Profits. For any

Service Innovation in Hospitality Industry free essay sample

By moving concentration from „Goods-Dominant Logic? to „Service-Dominant Logic? , Service Science presents another point of view on esteem creation and administration experience. In this new viewpoint, esteem is co-made by different jobs, experienced and assessed by clients. Be that as it may, the issue is the means by which to execute hypotheses in a particular industry. Concentrating on lodging industry, this paper plans to outline how administration advances with the improvement of innovation and hypothesis dependent on the contextual investigation of InfoQuest, which is an IT organization for the most part giving SaberKnot. InfoQuest rethinks a few financial jobs (inns, IT framework supplier, neighborhood organizations and clients) and connections among them (from a direct model to a netlike model) where it infuses Hotel Industry with new essentialness. Both upper hands and potential issues that may emerge from the administration advancement are therefore examined. Finally, a further investigation is made on the China showcase so as to show the chance of that business going into China. We will compose a custom exposition test on Administration Innovation in Hospitality Industry or on the other hand any comparative point explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page I Acknowledgments are given to all the individuals who bolstered me with the paper. Initially, I am profoundly obliged to my chiefs Mr. Lars Haglund and Mr. Erik Sundstro for their m, animating recommendations and accommodating participation in the hour of composing this thesis. I should likewise offer my thanks to InfoQuest where I worked during the hour of composing this postulation. Unique thanks ought to be made to Mr. Ronald U. Telson, Mr. Christer Hellholm, Ms. Lena Bryske, and different partners who gave a great deal of helpful data and significant thoughts and recommendations. In particular, none of this would have been conceivable without the affection and persistence of my family and my companions. For huge numbers of explorers in their excursion, visit or work excursion, inns are places they stay when out of home. As a develop industry, inns industry presently incorporates a wide range of housing from sumptuous 5-star inns to youth lodgings. Other than room administrations, most inns additionally offer an assortment of accessorial administrations, including however not restricted to food, refreshment, clothing and valet administrations. Also, the elevated level inns can offer gathering rooms, pools, excellence salons, wellness focuses and numerous different offices to both business and relaxation explorers. Data innovation (IT) is characterized by the Information Technology Association of America (ITAA) as the investigation, structure, advancement, execution, backing or the board of PC based data frameworks, especially programming applications and PC equipment. Contrasted with lodging industry, Information innovation came out rather as of late, however has formed into probably the greatest business with impacts to most different enterprises. In inn industry, the likelihood to gracefully qualified IT administrations is viewed as one of the essentials for, at any rate, top level lodgings. Administration Science is a developing order that centers around principal science, models, speculations and applications to drive advancement, rivalry, and personal satisfaction through service(s) (Bitner, Brown, Goul and Urban, 2006). Through moving from Goods-Dominant Logic to Service-Dominant Logic, Service Science centers around â€Å"operant resources† instead of - 1-â€Å"operand resources†, which infers all economies are administration economies. It keeps up that administrations (counting products and enterprises) co-made by partners and clients must be experienced and assessed by clients. . 2 Objectives and structure InfoQuest Group AB (InfoQuest) is an organization has some expertise in the IT fragment with the reason to bring its clients and accomplices inventive arrangements. With the assistance of Information Technology, the organization brings a help advancement into inn industry, which is the gravity of the examination. The administration development reth inks a few financial jobs (lodgings, IT framework supplier, nearby organizations and clients) and connections among them (from a direct model to a netlike model). This proposition intends to look at (1) the upper hands and potential issues that may be brought by this administration development and (2) the likelihood to transplant such the new plan of action made by InfoQuest in Europe to China showcase, considering administration hypothesis. The structure of the thesis can be depicted as follow: ? Administration writing survey ? which initially gives a rundown of Service Science and administration development and afterward contrasts Goods-Dominant Logic and Service-Dominant Logic; ? Organization depiction which presents InfoQuest and its primary item SaberKnot, specifically its specialized standards and business standards; ? Administration advancement in lodging industry ? Jobs redefinition; ? Worth co-creation; ? Upper hands; ? Potential issues; ? Market opportunity examination in China ? China showcase presentation; ? Regular nearby organizations; ? Openings; - 2-? Challenges and dangers; ? End. 1. 3 Methodology This postulation centers arou nd research of administration advancement in inn industry. So as to complete an inside and out examination, this proposal receives contextual investigation as the exploration structure. An organization named InfoQuest and its leader item SaberKnot demonstrate us a potential method to enhance administration in lodging industry, which is the situation of this postulation. I pick InfoQuest as the case is on the grounds that its new netlike plan of action includes both the moving from Goods-Dominant Logic to Service-Dominant Logic and administration advancement in inn industry, which can affirm and enhance existed hypothesis. ? Information assortment The examination strategies utilized in this theory predominantly incorporate archives audit, auxiliary investigation, member perception, official insights, and so on. Bryman and Bell (2007) called attention to the significance of writing survey, most evident explanation of which is to recognize what is now known in the examination zone. From scholarly writing survey, we can see favorable circumstances in the moving from Goods-Dominant Logic to Service-Dominant Logic and hypotheses of administration advancement. There are a considerable amount looks into identified with administration hypothesis and administration development, so my examination begins from a writing audit to develop a hypothetical premise, which covers the fields of administration definition, Service-Dominant Logic, Goods-Dominant Logic, administration advancement, and so on. Writing assets incorporate scholarly papers, books, and site pages, which give me existing examination accomplishments in this field. In any case, a large portion of these literary works don't concentrate on administration development in a particular industry, and no essential information can be gained from writing audit. As indicated by Bryman and Bell (2007), â€Å"the fundamental contextual investigation involves the itemized and serious examination of single case. † From their assessment, a case can be an association, an area, an individual, or an occasion, and so forth. They likewise referenced that subjective strategies, for example, member perception and unstructured meeting, are useful techniques in the event that review. The data of InfoQuest and SaberKnot is gathered from a few channels, including inside archives, member perception, correspondence with associates, and so forth. Also, the crude - 3-materials utilized in China advertise examination are mostly gathered from authentic insights. Most tables are cited from site of National Tourism Administration of The People? s China, and site of National Bureau of Statistics of China. Different insights and arrangements are alluded to sites of nearby governments or associations. Some data from organizations? ebsites is additionally used to make contender examination. As indicated by Vargo and Lusch (2007), â€Å"the esteem arrange part that is the prime integrator is in a more grounded serious position†. For our situation, no prime â€Å"integrator† exists, yet it needs a prime or center player who drives individuals in the system to go ahead. The predominant position makes center player to possess more impact in the system, which is the motivation behind why members battle for it. It's anything but a major issue if everything works out in a good way in the system, yet the danger is the means by which to manage the issues, assuming any, developing in this approximately sorted out framework, which will get significant. For instance, if a shop in the system being whined by clients a few times, who should assume the liability to conclude whether to keep the shop any more drawn out for its own-cure or to show it out right away? Moreover, different issues following the administration development incorporate how much force the prime player should have, how to oversee the utilization of intensity, and so forth. Among the four kinds of members, clients are not reasonable to go about as prime player regarding driving force, despite the fact that being

9 Success Tips for Dating a Single Mom

9 Success Tips for Dating a Single Mom More in Relationships Spouses & Partners Marital Problems LGBTQ Violence and Abuse So youve got your eye on a  ?single mom. Shes smart, strong, and beautiful, but also a bit of a mystery. How can you make this relationship work? And how do you let her know that youre not just playing gamesâ€"without getting overly involved too soon? Before you start dating a single mom or explore taking this relationship to the next level, set the stage for success with these 9  tips. Recognize That Dating a Single Mom Is Different Her time is limited, and much of her energy goes toward taking care of her kids. But she’s also much more clear about what she wants in life, and thats an attractive quality! Accept That Her Top Priority Will Always Be Her Children In other relationships, you may have been able to gauge a woman’s feelings for you by how much time and energy she put into your relationship. When you’re dating a single mom, this isn’t necessarily the case. She may not have the time to see you as often as she’d like, and it’s not always as simple as hiring a sitter to go out. Instead of taking the limits on her time as a slight, learn to look for other expressions of her feelings for you. Let Your Girlfriend Discipline Her Own Children When you’re dating a single mom, let her handle 100% of the kids’ discipline. The only exception to this rule is if she specifically asks for your support or help. If you have concerns about the kids’ behavior, talk with your girlfriend about it privately. Never attempt to handle the issue yourself without discussing it with her first. Stay Clear of Any Drama With Her Ex If there’s tension with her ex, let your girlfriend handle it. Shes been doing a pretty good job up to this point! Of course, you can support her and encourage her, but don’t contact her ex on her behalf or get involved in an ongoing court battle over their custody agreement. Pace Yourself It’s important to give your relationship time to develop. Don’t rush into moving in together or getting engaged. Instead, take it slow and focus on developing trust before you take your relationship to the next level. Offer Emotional Support As a single mom, there is a tremendous amount of pressure on your girlfriend to provide for her children financially and emotionally. Be the kind of boyfriend who can listen to the things she’s going through without trying to “solve” every problem for her. She’s strong, and she will work it out in time. Offering support and encouragement along the way will help you build a stronger bond together. Practicing Active Listening in Your Daily Conversations Be Trustworthy As a single mother, your girlfriend may have experienced situations previously where she depended on someone who was not trustworthy. Set yourself apart by being someone she can trust. Be responsible to her without being responsible for her. Allow Your Relationship With Her Kids to Develop Naturally Don’t try to be too much too soon to either your girlfriend or her children. If you’re not sure about how involved you want to be with the kids, be open and honest about that. Talking about it can ease both of your concerns. At the same time, it’s important for both your girlfriend and her children that you don’t begin to take on a role that you can’t maintain for the long haul. A Word From Verywell You’re the only one who can know whether dating a single mom is right for you. Don’t get caught up in listening to family members or friends who will try to discourage you or suggest that she’s just looking for a father figure. This is rarely the case. Pay attention, instead, to the woman you know and the relationship you’re building together.

Conflict Is Human Nature - 1724 Words

Conflict is human nature; it practically unavoidable. Whether it is at home or in the professional world, we as individuals must communicate or interact on a daily basis by some shape or form with other individuals in order to get anything accomplished. One employee alone does not or could not make an organization successful. In reality, these constant interactions are more than likely going to lead to some type of conflict at one point or another in our lives. Griffin and Moorhead define conflict as â€Å"a process resulting in the perceptions of two parties that they are working in opposition to each other in ways that result in feelings of discomfort and/or animosity† (Griffin Moorhead, 2014). It has been determined that conflict can†¦show more content†¦Some of the results of dysfunctional conflict would be wasted time, less productivity, lower employee motivation, and strained relationships within the office. Too much negative conflict can even lead to emp loyees having health issues even after the conflict is resolved. More than likely an organization will experience both functional and dysfunctional conflicts and those conflicts may be at different intensity levels. With this being said, it is really important for management to not only understand the types of conflict, but to also know what can cause conflict in the first place. Griffin and Moorhead discuss three different forms of conflict. These include: task conflict, process conflict, and relationship conflict. Task conflict comes into play when individuals have differing opinions about the goals or outcomes of a specific task. One manager may feel that the company needs to cut spending measures and reduce the amount the company is paying for employee insurance. Another manager may feel that although cutting costs are important, they need strive to keep the employees happy for the betterment of the company. Taking away what employees see as the company doing something n ice for them could result in turnovers and decreased morale throughout the company. Process conflict occurs when â€Å"the parties agree on the goals and content of work butShow MoreRelatedThe Conflict Between Nature Versus Human Institution937 Words   |  4 PagesAntigone by Sophocles is a play that has lasted through the ages because of its underlying meaning that can still be applied today in conflicts such as parents who choose to not vaccinate their children. It is a conflict between nature versus human institution. Throughout this play one notices there is no clear hero. The basic conflict in Antigone came about by a disagreement between two brothers in a royal family in Thebes, Eteocles and Polynices, Eteocles being the older brother. Antigone and IsmeneRead More Freud Essay1234 Words   |  5 Pages In The Communist Manifesto, Karl Marx and Frederick Engels present their view of human nature and the effect that the economic system and economic factors have on it. Marx and Engels discuss human nature in the context of the economic factors which they see as driving history. Freud, in Civilization and Its Discontents, explores human nature through his psychological view of the human mind. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Marx states that history quot;...is the history of class strugglesquot;Read MoreEssay about Nature and Humanity, a Comparison of Poems1545 Words   |  7 PagesWhen humans and nature come together, they either coexist harmoniously because natures inhabitants and humans share a mutual respect and understanding for each other, or they clash because humans attempt to control and force their ways of life on nature. The poems, The Bull Moose by Alden Nowlan, The Panther by Rainer Maria Rilke, Walking the Dog by Howard Nemerov, and The Fish by Elizabeth Bishop, describe what happens when humans and nature come together. I believe that when humans andRead MoreLocke, Hobbes, Aquinas, and Machiavell Theory on Self-Defense and Governance1548 Words   |  7 Pagespolitical theories and at the very center of each of their theories is a commentary on human conflict. Self-defense is the very first type of conflict between humans and is defined very differently by each theorist. The subject of self-defense renders the foundation of a political theory in that it illustrates a theorist’s presumptions regarding human nature and interaction, which extrapolates into how humans need to be governed. John Locke wrote The Second Treatise of Government during a periodRead MoreJohn Locke And The Law Of Nature976 Words   |  4 Pagesthe Law of Nature is crucial and necessary to understand his work the ‘Second Treatise of Government’. His beliefs in limited government and individual rights are perceived throughout the entire text, but in order to understand why he believes this it is necessary to understand and analyze three elements. First one must understand what the Law of Nature is according to John Locke and why it is an essential element towards all individuals. Second one must understand how the Law of Nature interactsRead MoreProgress is defined as movement toward a destination. Conflict is defined as being incompatible or1500 Words   |  6 PagesProgress is defined as movement toward a destination. Conflict is defined as being incompatible or at variance with something. When paired together progress is questioned as to its ability in light of either the abse nce or presence of conflict. For as long as questions have been asked this question is one that finds itself being answered within the realm of political institutions and interrogated within the universal discussion as to whether or not human beings as a species can evolve or move past itsRead MoreEssay on Human Nature in Hamlet and a Midsummer Nights Dream1314 Words   |  6 Pagesis the nature of people to love, then destroy, then love again that which they value the most.† –Unknown. Countless authors have tried to display love as human nature, but no author does this better than the famous playwright, William Shakespeare. In both Hamlet and A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Shakespeare exhibits how love can control a person. To understand how love controls a person, one must understand that human nature is the sum of qualities and traits shared by all humans. All humans have exhibitRead MoreThe Nature Vs. Nurture1463 Words   |  6 PagesT What can we define as Human Nature and Nurture? The Nature vs. Nurture has been a long never ending debate for some time now. Nature vs Nurture has been so profoundly debated, that now it’s unclear whether what makes us who we are and what we do, nature or nurture. For purposes of this essay Nature is going to be defined as characteristics we acquire through our genetic and biological factors, while that Nurture is going to be defined characteristics we acquire through our interactions and influencesRead MoreWilfred Owen Essay1001 Words   |  5 Pagesconveys his perspectives on human conflict through his experiences during The Great War. Poems such as ‘Futility’ and ‘Dulce et Decorum Est’ portray these perceptions through the use of poetic techniques, emphasising such conflicts involving himself, other people and nature. These themes are examined in extreme detail, attempting to shape meaning in relation to Owen’s first-hand encounters whilst fighting on the battlefield. Wilfred Owen experiences many inner conflicts during his time in the warRead MoreHuman Nature And The Relationship Between Nation States1645 Words   |  7 Pagesdoes human nature help us to explain the relationship between nation states? This essay will discuss different approaches to human nature and the effect it has on the relationship between nation states. It will outline some contemporary examples of relationship between nation states, including that of Syria and the affected states, as well as general realist theories to human nature, such as ‘The stag hunt’. As well as this, it will look at alternative more liberal approaches to human nature, and

Performance Enhancing Supplements Essay - 2066 Words

Performance Enhancing Supplements Northeastern junior Colin Magee is like other athletic students around campus. He played sports in high school and now lifts weights at the Marino Center, Northeastern’s multi-million dollar workout center, several times a week. Also like many other weight-lifting students, Magee takes performance-enhancing supplements. Performance-enhancing supplements are nutrients that, unlike anabolic steroids, are available over the counter at countless supermarkets and nutrition stores nationwide. Supplements such as androstenedione (andro), creatine, tetrahydrogestrinone (THG), and NO2 are the most popular in today’s market, and are used to improve muscle gain. They are taken to coincide with a†¦show more content†¦Of 21,225 student athletes who anonymously completed a questionnaire, 29.2% said they currently used â€Å"some type of supplement other than multivitamins,† the NCAA News reported. Of those supplement users, the major reasons student-athletes used the supplements were to improve athletic performance (27.3%), to improve physical appearance (also 27.3%), and for weight loss/gain (19.7%). Steroid use is not strictly a problem among college-aged students. There is evidence steroid use can oftentimes start much earlier than in college. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services conducted in 2001, 3.7% of high school seniors have taken anabolic steroids, while 2.1% of high school juniors and 1.6% of eighth graders have reported to have also at least once taken steroids. It has been proven by numerous studies that if exposed to steroids in high school, teenagers will almost always continue using steroids in college. According to a study done by the National Institute of Health’s Office of Dietary Supplements and the Council for Responsible Nutrition, about 42% of NCAA athletes who reported in 2001 that they use steroids said they brought the habit with them from high school. The numbers for how many college athletes use over-the-counter supplements are much higher than steroid numbers. According to a survey ofShow MoreRelatedPerformance Enhancing Drugs And Supplements Plague The Athletic Playing Field Worldwide2011 Words   |  9 PagesHistorical National Football League coach and manager Vince Lombardi once said, â€Å"Winning isn t everything--but wanting to win is†. The want to win, is real; it is embodied by the usage of performance enhancing drugs. Blood doping increases the count of red blood cells in the body, anabolic steroids accelerate the growth of muscle and strengthen the bones, and stimulants increase alertness, competitiveness, aggressiveness and reduce fatigue. All of these materials have clear benefits but the healthRead MoreEssay on Performance Enhancing Drugs Among Athletes935 Words   |  4 PagesSince the dawn of the twenty-first century, performance enhancing drugs have become a religious practice in â€Å"the lives of som e sport figures.† The use of these supplements have given athletes an edge to perform at maximum capability. Most major athletes all agree on the fact that the competitive drive is intensely fierce. Despite all, most athletes have high hopes of attaining prestigious awards, a full ride college scholarship or the once in a lifetime opportunity to play for a professional teamRead MoreThe Benefits of Performance Enhancing Drugs Among Athletes Essay1044 Words   |  5 PagesSince the dawn of the twenty-first century, performance enhancing drugs have become a religious practice in â€Å"the lives of some sport figures.† The use of these supplements have given the user an edge, an edge to perform at maximum capability. Most major athletes all agree on the fact that the competitive drive to win can be quite intense. Besides the satisfaction of personal accomplishment, athletes commonly pursue high hopes of attaining a medal, a college scholarship or the once in a lifetime opp ortunityRead MorePerformance Enhancing Drugs Among Athletes Essay944 Words   |  4 PagesSince the dawn of the twenty-first century, performance enhancing drugs have become a religious practice in â€Å"the lives of some sport figures.† The use of these supplements have given the user an edge, an edge to perform at maximum capability. Most major athletes all agree on the fact that the competitive determination to win is intense. Despite all, most athletes have high hopes of either winning a medal, a full ride college scholarship or the once in a lifetime opportunity to play for a professionalRead MorePerformance Enhancing Drugs Should Be Banned1645 Words   |  7 Pagesthe rules by using performance enhancing drugs each year. Performance enhancing drugs help athletes to becomes bigger, faster, and overall better at their individual sport. This process is called doping. Doping can be defined as using drugs and various substances to better perform at a particular task. Furth ermore, these athletes act in the moment and fail to see all aspects of these performance enhancing drugs. Contradictorily, some individuals argue that performance enhancing drugs should in factRead Moreâ€Å"Performance-Enhancing Drugs in the Workplace† Essay1392 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"Performance-Enhancing Drugs in the Workplace† Performance-enhancers are becoming more common in our everyday life, despite our efforts to ban them. This raises the questions, should we just accept these drugs and use them to our advantage? Or should we continue to resist these drugs and not take advantage of their performance-enhancing capabilities? When you start talking about organizations like the military, where Soldiers are ask to go beyond the normal physical and mental stress of a regularRead MorePerformance Enhancing Drugs. . Performance-Enhancing Drugs1580 Words   |  7 PagesPerformance Enhancing Drugs Performance-enhancing drugs (PED s) have been an issue for many decades now for the medical and sports field. Olympic and professional athletes have been using them to gain an upper hand on the competition, but some may ask if it s really worth it? Studies show that performance-enhancing drugs have been proven to negatively affect the health of athletes who take them. Simply put, performance-enhancing drugs could either improve athletic performance or can be extremelyRead MoreDo People Understand The Harmful Effects Of Performance?712 Words   |  3 Pagesthe harmful effects of performance enhancers like steroids, stimulants, relaxants, diuretics, and painkillers have on athletes? Body 1. Need step: Performance enhancers of any kind can be a detriment not only to an athlete’s health, but also to their careers. HEALTH- Athletes start to question their credibility and ability to perform, which leads them to pursue paths they wouldn’t otherwise pursue. There are negative, long-term effects that come along with taking performance enhancers such as: growthRead MoreEthical Dilemmas : Performance Enhancing Drugs1674 Words   |  7 PagesEthical Dilemmas: Performance Enhancing Drugs Today’s society places high-performance athletes on a pedestal and our youth look to become the next superstar. The question plaguing young athletes is â€Å"how can I get there?†. Physical development must be considered for any athlete and this consequently introduces the topic of performance enhancing drugs. These substances can cause physical development to occur faster than the natural rate, making the athlete a step above â€Å"the rest†. Ethical, moralRead More Performance Enhancing Drugs Essay1759 Words   |  8 PagesPerformance Enhancing Drugs   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When most people think of performance-enhancing drugs the first thought that comes to their minds is the illegal ones like steroids, but today there are more non-illegal drugs like creatine and androstenedione for people today. Creatine is a chemical produced by the kidney and found in meat product. It helps muscles recover after a workout, which in turn helps athletes bulk up faster (Gregorian 5). Creatine is used by many of the nations top college sports teams

Application Form Template (Sainsburys) Free Essays

|Application Form | |THE INFORMATION YOU SUPPLY ON THIS FORM WILL BE TREATED IN CONFIDENCE. | |Please note that the closing date for this job vacancy is Monday 30th April 2013. apply for this post please accompany this | |application form with your curriculum vitae and a cover letter. We will write a custom essay sample on Application Form Template (Sainsburys) or any similar topic only for you Order Now | |We will require you to be available on 1st May 2013 for interviews. | |Section 1 Personal details | Title: | |Last Name: | | |First Names: | | |Address: | | | | | | | | Postcode: | | | | |Home Telephone Number: | | |Mobile Telephone Number: | | |E-mail address: | | |Are you eligible to work in the UK? Yes | |No | | |Do you hold a full UK driving licence? |Yes | |No | | | | |If yes, Do you have any points or convictions etc? : | | | | | | |Section 2 Rehabilitation of Offenders Act | |Have you ever been convicted of a criminal offence? |Yes | |No | | |Have you any prosecutions pending? |Yes | |No | | If yes, please give details / dates of offence(s) and sentence: | | | |Section 3 Health | |Number of days absent in the last 2 years: | | |Please state number of times in the last 2 years: | | | |Are you registered disabled? |YES No | |If yes please provide your disability number and details: | | | | | |Section 4 Education | Date From |Date To |Name of School |Examination s taken and Qualifications Gained (Specify Grades) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Section 5 Employment Record | Please list chronologically, starting with current or last employer |Name and Address of Employer |Date From: |Date To: |Job Title/Job Function/ Responsibilities: |Salary and Reason for | | | | | |Leaving | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Section 6 References | Please give the names and addresses of your two most recent employers (if applicable). 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Wuthering Heights By Bronte Essays (798 words) - British Films

Wuthering Heights By Bronte Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte is a novel full of passion, love and betrayal. It explores the love of two individuals and their influence on their surroundings. The story occurs in a small town. In this area are the two homes of Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange. The vast contrasts between these houses symbolizes the people who reside their and how these individuals effect the homes. Wuthering Heights is portrayed as a dark, dismal mausoleum. There are long, narrow hallways with little light. In fact, when Isabella returns from being married, she has trouble finding her way across the house because it is so poorly lit. There is a dark presence about Wuthering Heights. The residence is run down and the walls are fading and peeling. Also it is a cold, drafty place. In fact, Linton always has fires going because it is always so chilly. Wuthering Heights is a gloomy, oppressive place. On the other hand, Thrushcross Grange has a light, joyful presence. At this home, love is bountiful and its occupants are happy. It is the picture of a loving husband and wife with two beautiful children. The kids are seen playing with a dog, laughing, and having fun. In fact, when Catherine, the main character visits them, she stays for months. They treat her well, and she comes home refined and happy. Thrushcross Grange provides a feeling of a house redolent with joy. Just as the homes differ greatly, so do the home's inhabitants. Both of these houses symbolize their main occupants. Heathcliff, Hareton, and Linton all live at Wuthering Heights. Heathcliff is the dark, brooding character. He is mean, angry, and full of revenge. He viciously beats his own son and niece. Then Heathcliff forces them to marry each other, so that he can have control over Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange when his son dies. Heathcliff also marries Isabella, a women he hates. He does this to get revenge on her and her brother for having commented unfavorably about him. She is treated so atrociously that she runs away while pregnant. Yet, Heathcliff does not care and does not bother going after her. These are only a few of the actions of Heathcliff, yet they show his cruel nature and dark personality. Heathcliff also treats Hareton abdominally and thus Hareton becomes a younger version of Heathcliff. Hareton, too, is mean and vengeful. He never says anything nice to anyone and shuts himself away from others. Linton is Heathcliff's son, and is a manipulative scoundrel. He uses his illness to coerce his cousin Cathy to visit him. Linton knows his father will force Cathy to marry him, but afraid of a beating, he still asks Cathy to come. Linton then allows Cathy to be held hostage in his home. He could obtain the key to let her out, but he is too scared for himself to rescue his cousin. Apparent is the selfish and cruel characteristics of these individuals. There is no joy in their lives, but they are filled with bitter anger. These feelings are transferred to Wuthering Heights and thus both the house and its occupants seem dismal and sinister. Residing at Thrushcross Grange are Edgar, Catherine, and Cathy. They epitomize good people who are kind and not drawn to violence. Edgar never raises his hand to anyone. He shows a sweet, gentle love to Catherine. He worries about her and take cares of her when she is ill. Edgar never becomes mad when she spends time with Heathcliff. He gives her anything she wants and is always kind to her. Although Catherine is not perfect, she is basically a kind individual. She cares about Edgar and never yells at him or harms him. Yet, it is really Catherine's outer beauty that is representative of Thrushcross Grange. Catherine is fair and beautiful. She appears angelic and thus this beauty is translated to her home. Cathy is a fine, young lady. She loves her father and stays at his side constantly when he is ill. She even consents to marry Linton, so she can see her father. Cathy is even kind to Linton who is a whining brat. Cathy is young, spirited, and happy. These same traits are found at Thrushcross Grange. There is a impression of peace that is felt by all. Although it may seem that the homes control its occupants, it is actually the other way around. As the inhabitants change, so do the homes. In the end, Wuthering Heights becomes a happy, joyful place.

Do fathers use the same features of child-language as mothers and how does parental usage of CDS compare The WritePass Journal

Do fathers use the same features of child-language as mothers and how does parental usage of CDS compare Do fathers use the same features of child-language as mothers and how does parental usage of CDS compare CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION1.1 TOPIC AREA1.2 FOCUS OF STUDY1.3 RESEARCH QUESTION1.4 STRUCTURE OF STUDYCHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 FIRST STUDY IN THE FIELD 2.2 – DIFFERENTIAL EXPERIENCE HYPOTHESIS2.3 – FINE-TUNING HYPOTHESIS 2.4 – TOTAL LANGUAGE PRODUCED 2.5 – STRUCTURAL AND LEXICAL ASPECTS2.6 – FUNCTIONAL AND CONVERSATIONAL ASPECTS2.7 – SUMMARY AND RESEARCH QUESTIONSCHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY  3.1 – PILOT STUDY3.2 – THE SUBJECTS3.3 – DATA COLLECTION3.4 – DATA TRANSCRIPTION3.5 VARIABLESCHAPTER 4: RESULTS4.1 – THE AMOUNT OF PARENTAL SPEECH4.2 COMPLEXITY 4.3 – THE FUNCTIONS OF PARENTAL SPEECH Related CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 TOPIC AREA Child-directed speech (CDS) has been central to research ever since Noam Chomsky declared it to be a ‘degenerate’, ‘deficient’, ‘impoverished’ form, (Fletcher MacWhinney, 1995) stating children could not learn the rules of a language by hearing such complex input. Other studies have shown that adult input is by no means as complex as Chomskyan theories had assumed. Such studies have observed that adult-child interaction is somewhat different from adult-adult interaction, giving rise to the finding that adults generally adapt their speech when talking to children, which is termed ‘CDS’ or ‘motherese’ as it is otherwise known. Some common features have been attributed to this unique speech register. These features are said to include shorter sentences, clearly segmented slower speech, phonologically simplified utterances, restricted vocabulary, exaggerated prosody, repetitions and expansions. The language used is said to be constrained to ‘the here and now’ and related to the child’s focus of attention and ongoing activity (Harley, 2008), which all in all result in effective communication between parents and their children and also contribute to the speed and ease of a child’s language acquisition (Snow 1972). 1.2 FOCUS OF STUDY As child-directed speech is often termed ‘motherese’ it gives a misleading impression that fathers have a negligible impact upon child language development. Hence, why the verbal environment provided by the father has been largely ignored until recent years. However, the ever-changing family roles and changes in typical male-female stereotypes in western society have influenced a change in the nature of parenting, which has given rise to the introduction of research into paternal input to children. The late twentieth century has seen an increase in fathers adopting the primary caregiver role, which has led to the popularity of ‘stay-at-home dads’. While tending to the immediate needs of children was traditionally considered to be a female responsibility, nowadays that is not the case as it is becoming increasingly popular for mothers to be in employment. Therefore, a number of studies since the 1970’s have discovered fathers as well as mothers produce the typical modifications of CDS in their speech to children, hence the suggestion that males provide an equally large facilitation to child language development as females (Berko-Gleason 1975). The scope of the literature in this area is somewhat limited, however research has indicated that the most important features of CDS are maintained by paternal input; simplicity, well-formedness, repetition and immediacy, (Berko-Gleason 1975) which has given rise to the newly-coined term ‘fatherese’. Nevertheless, there is an inconsistency in the findings of the studies in this domain. 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTION The research question central to this dissertation is do fathers use the same features of child-language as mothers and how does parental usage of CDS compare. The focus will consider the parental input to two language-learning siblings, at different stages of language development. 1.4 STRUCTURE OF STUDY Following this introduction, a literature review addresses the findings of numerous existing studies in the field of gender-specific child-directed speech. The methodology section explains how this investigation was carried out, including a description of the subjects observed, the methods of data capture, transcription and the variables used for analysis, followed by a description of the results gathered in the investigation and a discussion of the findings and problems encountered throughout the study.   To conclude the investigation, the outcome of the study will be related back to the review of literature in order to address how the findings fit in with what is already known in the field of gender-specific CDS. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 FIRST STUDY IN THE FIELD The research of Jean Berko-Gleason (1975) was the first in the area of CDS to consider a paternal contribution. She conducted a study to determine whether the defined features of CDS were limited to the speech of mothers or if they could be characterised as a function of adult language to children. Before the conduction of the study it was of question whether there was such a thing as men’s speech to children at all, as a previous study made a bizarre statement that men only spend an average of 37.7 seconds per day engaged in speech interaction with their children (Berko-Gleason 1975). Berko-Gleason overruled this finding stating fathers do talk to their children, but her research was not solely orientated around paternal input. She discussed unpublished studies into the speech of mothers and fathers in interactions in their home settings and also reported upon studies of interactions in a day-care setting, exploring more broadly the speech of ‘non-mothers’. When addressing children in a home setting, the research indicated that there are some similarities in the speech styles of male and female adults, but it also asserts that differences arise due to the father’s role. It was asserted that fathers perform many of the characteristics attributed to â€Å"motherese† such as restraining their speech to the ‘hear and now’, and considerably simplifying the length of their speech, as fathers were found to use a similar mean length of utterance (MLU) to mothers. However, it is asserted that mothers are more sensitive to their child’s ages in families of more than one child, stating they directed less complex utterances to their younger children and more complex utterances to the older of the siblings (Berko-Gleason 1975). An instance where a father addressed the younger of his children with a more complex utterance is mentioned, suggesting a lack of sensitivity on paternal behalf. The study concerned also distingu ished between the types of sentences used by each of the parents, generalising in a qualitative sense that fathers use more direct imperatives and produced more threats as well as rarer vocabulary. This more frequent use of rare vocabulary could also suggestively contribute to the judgement that fathers are less sensitive than mothers. The research gathered in the interactions of day-care teachers further supported the findings regarding sensitivity, as the data observed an unexpected lexical usage by a male teacher towards a three year old. This suggests that weaker sensitivity is characteristic of ‘male’ language towards children as appose to the more constricted ‘father’ language. Berko-Gleason asserts that even though â€Å"fathers are not as well tuned-in to their children as mothers are in the traditional family situation: they do not have to learn to attend to subtle signals from the child, and frequently have no penalty to pay for any lack of atten tionthere are probably serious and far-reaching effects that result from the fact† (1975; 293). She also examined a study of gender-specific CDS in a storytelling situation, in which fathers were said to concentrate on the activity of telling a story rather than using the story to facilitate interaction with the child, which was characteristic behaviour of mothers. The mothers in this study were reported to ask a lot of questions to ensure their child fully understood the activity. Berko-Gleason maintained that â€Å"the children had to exert themselves more for the fathers, and try harder to make themselves both heard and understood. In this way, fathers can be seen as a bridge to the outside world, leading the child to change his or her language in order to be understood† (1975; 293). This gave rise to the ‘Bridge Hypothesis’ proposed by Berko-Gleason; (Dato 1975; 294) maintaining that speaking to fathers who are less sensitive than mothers in terms of la nguage use, provides children with the linguistic skills required for talking to strangers and people in more abstract contexts. Contextually speaking, Berko-Gleason notes that â€Å"the fathers’ language clearly demarked their role within a family: a father playing with his small son might break off the game to send the child to his mother to have his diaper changed† (Dato 1975: 291). 2.2 – DIFFERENTIAL EXPERIENCE HYPOTHESIS Similar to the Bridge Hypothesis in terms of sensitivity is what is known as the ‘Differential Experience Hypothesis’, (McLaughlin, White, McDevitt Raskin 1983, Lewis Gregory 1987) which is theorised on the basis of findings that mothers provide more linguistic support for their children due to the fact they are more attuned to the child’s needs and abilities. Fathers, on the other hand, are seen to be less sensitive to children’s’ capabilities, which sees them being more linguistically demanding than mothers. This hypothesis maintains that fathers instigate a greater performance from children due to their lack of sensitivity. However it does not insinuate that fathers are better language facilitators than mothers, on the contrary, that the functions of each of the speech styles give equal contributions to child language development, in the sense that they offer experiences of a differing nature. In sum of the above hypotheses, mothers and fathers are suggested to engage in different kinds of interactions with their children. It is not to be believed that one of these speech styles is in any way superior to the other, they are viewed in a complementary manner to one another and interpreted to manifest and reflect each of the parental roles (Chanu Marcos 1994). â€Å"The mother’s specific role is to provide a feeling of security by avoiding situations where the child’s established acquisitions would be challenged, while still stimulating the child. The father’s specific role is to prompt the child to attain higher levels of success, even if it means momentarily destabilising the child† (Chanu Marcos 1994; 3). Due to these observed differences in parental speech behaviour in terms of CDS, the communicative behaviour of children should also be expected to differ when conversing with mothers and fathers. 2.3 – FINE-TUNING HYPOTHESIS Many studies (Snow 1972, Berko-Gleason 1975, Sokolov 1993) have found that mothers seem to ‘fine-tune’ their speech when talking to young children. Cross (1977) proposed the ‘Fine-Tuning hypothesis’ based on correlations between the measures of maternal input structure and child competence. It has been theorised that mothers adjust the length and complexity of their utterances in line with the increase in their child’s mastery of linguistic competence. This implies that parent’s decrease their use of CDS as their child’s linguistic ability develops. This is observable in terms of mean length of utterance (MLU) as it is expected that parental growth in the use of word classes and word order will occur in accordance with the growth of child comprehension and production levels. Cross observed that individual differences were found to reflect the speech styles of mothers in some cases; however, statements have been made that a mother more cl osely ‘fine-tunes’ her language to the child than any other family member. It is a possible point of analysis in this study to test these statements in order to see how the MLU of mothers and fathers compare. It has been noted that mothers ‘fine-tune’ their speech to young children in more ways than one. As well as lexical and structural adjustments, prosodic adjustments are also said to be found. Prosodic fine-tuning is said to be marked by higher pitch and exaggerated intonational patterns which appeal to infants’ attention patterns (Fletcher MacWhinney, 1995). â€Å"Manipulation of these prosodic characteristics is very high at precisely the age when infants are most responsive and by age five children receive almost no prosodic adjustments† (Fletcher MacWhinney 1995, p.182). Such adjustments are said to be tuned to the child’s responsiveness and attentiveness whereas phonological and syntactic adjustments are tuned to the child’s production and comprehension levels respectively. Phonetics are said to be adjusted from the one-word stage onwards and include enhanced clarity of vowels and full production of often-reduced consonants. (Fletcher M acWhinney, 1995). 2.4 – TOTAL LANGUAGE PRODUCED In terms of analysing how much mothers and fathers speak to their young children in mean number of utterances, there is a general agreement that mothers speak more than fathers on the whole (Golinkoff Ames 1979, Rondal 1980, Davidson Snow 1996, Pancsofar Vernon-Feagans 2006). However, McLaughlin et al (1983) and Lewis and Gregory (1987) found no significance in mean number of utterances. Golinkoff and Ames (1979) found situation to have a bearing on conversational turns. They recorded parents in dyadic and triadic situations, reporting fathers to produce half as many utterances and take fewer conversational turns in a free-play situation with the mother present. However, in a dyadic play situation, mothers and fathers were reported to produce the same number of utterances and take the same number of turns. McLaughlin et al (1983) found parents to take relatively equal conversational turns while Rondal (1980) proposed that mothers take more turns. 2.5 – STRUCTURAL AND LEXICAL ASPECTS The complexity of the parents’ sentences can be measured by making comparisons between their mean length of utterance (MLU) and number of verbs per utterance. However, there is large differentiation in the results regarding their MLU. Giattino and Hogan (1975) carried out the first published study in the field of ‘fatherese’. They provided a father-only speech analysis with which they made comparisons to previously reported investigations of mother-child data of the same nature. For the means of comparison for MLU, they recorded the father in adult-adult interaction, in which his MLU was recorded as 9.7 words. In his interaction with the child, his MLU was recorded as 5.2 words which was found to be closely correlated to the child’s MLU of 4.5 words. This evidence supports the finding that the father was aware of the child’s level of comprehension, which in turn influenced his language as he directed considerably shorter sentences to her than he did in adult-adult conversation. Discrepancies occurred in the conflicting results regarding MLU. Some studies found that mothers and fathers have similar MLU (Golinkoff Ames 1979, Lewis Gregory 1987, Pancsofar Vernon-Feagans 2006) while other studies found that mothers produce a significantly longer MLU (McLaughlin et al 1983, Davidson Snow 1996). Rondal (1980) supported the ‘Bridge Hypothesis’ and the ‘Differential Experience Hypothesis’ with the finding that although fathers’ speech was found to be shorter in length, the longest utterance in the study was also addressed by a father, portraying the lack of sensitivity central to the hypotheses. McLaughlin et al (1983) also reported that although the utterances spoken by mothers were significantly longer, they were more ‘well-tuned’ into the child’s abilities, also in support of the hypotheses. Lewis and Gregory (1987) and Pancsofar Vernon-Feagans (2005) are in agreement that fathers use fewer verbs per utterance. This is troublesome evidence as this variable is said to contribute towards complexity as it is evidence of low sensitivity, meaning it shows conflict with the ‘Bridge Hypothesis’ that fathers are less sensitive than mothers. In the means of vocabulary, Davidson and Snow (1996) asserted that mothers talked more complexly, in that they used more low frequency words. They also stated that children spoke more complexly themselves in maternal dyads, showing a greater use of low-frequency vocabulary than in paternal dyads. Previous studies, the ‘Bridge Hypothesis’ and the ‘Differential Experience Hypothesis’ all undertake the belief that fathers create a more linguistically challenging environment for the child, however this study has shown that this is not always the case as it has proven an instance where mothers have provided a more sophisticated input than fathers. It was assumed that the mothers’ linguistically challenging behaviour in this study had prevailed over the stereotypically female behaviour of ‘fine-tuning’. This was attributed to the mothers’ advanced scholarly background as they were said to be as highly educated as the fathers (Davidson S now 1996). Lexically speaking, there is said to be little difference in the speech of mothers and fathers measured by the type token ratio (TTR) (McLaughlin, Schutz and White 1980, Ratner 1988, Pancsofar Vernon-Feagans 2006). Rondal (1980) found the speech of fathers to be more diverse, and Ratner (1988) in a more detailed analysis of vocabulary, found fathers to be more lexically demanding through their frequent use of rare nominal words and infrequent use of common nouns. Both of these findings are in support of Berko-Gleason’s theory that the linguistic style of fathers provides children with a ‘bridge to the outside world’. Giattino and Hogan (1975) stated that declaratives were used in 35% of the corpus, interrogatives 34%, exclamatory sentences 9% and imperatives 6%. Giattino and Hogan (1975) and Golinkoff and Ames (1979) are in agreement that mothers and fathers use these sentence types to similar proportions. Further conflicting evidence has been found in the area of questions. Some studies found that mothers and fathers ask the same number of questions, (Davidson Snow 1996, Pancsofar Vernon-Feagans 2006) whereas other studies found that mothers ask more questions, (Lewis Gregory 1987) although other studies concluded that fathers ask more questions (McLaughlin et al 1983). Such contradictory findings are difficult to deduce an inference from. The ‘Bridge Hypothesis’ maintains that fathers are more challenging interlocutors than mothers, therefore in the means of interrogatives it is to be expected that fathers ask more wh-questions (questions that require a more elaborate response) than yes/no questions (questions that require the child to answer with a one-word answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’). Several studies (Giattino Hogan 1975, McLaughlin et al 1983) support this finding, however there are studies opposing this evidence (Lewis Gregory 1987, Pancsofar Vernon-Feagans 2006). Wh-questions are said to be a challenge for children as they require the child to construct a lexical response rather than repeat the parents structure or simply give a non-verbal response (Berko-Gleason 1975). In terms of question types, Golinkoff and Ames (1979) and McLaughlin et al (1983) agreed that yes/no questions are asked more frequently overall than wh-questions. This makes sense in the respects that mothers speak more than fathers and mothers are more inclined to ask yes/no rather than wh-questions. â€Å"Many researchers have studied ‘language-teaching’ aspects of parental speech. These include explicit educative behaviours such as corrections, expansions and self repetitions. Although all parental communicative behaviours are ‘educative’, considering a child can learn by observation and imitation, these specific behaviours manifest the parents’ intentional effort to teach their child† (Chanu Marcos 1994; 7). Some research has concluded that fathers use repetitions more frequently than mothers (McLaughlin et al 1983, Lewis Gregory 1987) while others have concluded the reverse (Ratner 1988). Giattino and Hogan (1975) found that repetitions made up 9% of their corpus. These were said to always be repetitions of the child’s preceding utterance, not self-repetitions. When compared to a set of previously recorded female-child data, a difference was realised in the respect that mothers’ repetitions are repetitions of themselves. The conflicting findings of Golinkoff and Ames (1979) recorded that both genders use repetitions to the same frequency, and that when they occur they are always repetitions of themselves not their children. They stated repetitions are more likely to be found when requesting action rather than giving information. Giattino and Hogan (1975) found very few instances where the father used corrections and Rondal (1980) found that mothers correct their children more than fathers. While comparing their data to data from previous investigations, Giattino and Hogan (1975) found that fathers rarely used grammatically incomplete sentences where as mothers are far more likely to do so. They found very few instances where completion sentences were used and said that expansions made up a mere 0.5% of the corpus whereas they contributed 30% to the previously conducted investigation of female CDS. The explanation attributed to the low frequency of expansions in the male corpus regarded the child’s production level. As the child was considered to be linguistically fluent, the need for the father to expand her utterances was eliminated. 2.6 – FUNCTIONAL AND CONVERSATIONAL ASPECTS Berko-Gleason (1975) found trends in the studies he examined, in that fathers produce more requests for clarification. This finding was later supported by Rondal (1980). This suggests that fathers do not understand their children as well as mothers, possibly a consequence of fathers who assume secondary caregiver position due to their employment status. Research which has focussed on directives separates imperatives; the most direct form of directives, from interrogatives; an indirect form. â€Å"The use of more direct or indirect forms of directives challenges the child’s comprehension level to differing degrees. When a parent uses a direct form (‘be quiet’) it is much easier to understand the communicative intention than when a parent uses an indirect form (‘can we reduce the noise level in here?’)† (Chanu Marcos 1994; 8). In agreement with Berko-Gleason (1975), several studies found that fathers use more direct imperatives than mothers (Rondal 1980, McLaughlin et al 1980, McLaughlin et al 1983). Interestingly, McLaughlin et al (1980) found that fathers directed more imperatives at their sons than their daughters. Berko-Gleason attributes the finding that fathers use more direct imperatives to the fact that fathers cast themselves into the role of disciplinarian in the home setting, and he states the finding that fathers direct more imperatives to their sons than their daughters â€Å"gives the impression that in our society males become accustomed early on to taking orders, and, if their fathers provide role models, to giving them† (1975; 294). McLaughlin et al (1980) found mothers use more indirectly controlling language whereas fathers use more directly controlling language. Berko-Gleason proposes that â€Å"mothers tend to couch their imperative intent in question form† (1975; 295) wh ich conflicts with research that has evidence that fathers ask more questions overall. Golinkoff and Ames (1979) found that the situation has a bearing on parental use of directives as the amount found in dyadic situations increased from the amount used in triadic situations regardless of the gender of the parent. Parents were said to fall into a directive mode in dyadic situations. 2.7 – SUMMARY AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The examination of the literature in the area of caregiver input shows that there are a number of similarities and differences between mothers’ and fathers’ speech. Parental interactive styles in dyadic behaviours have been the primary focus of research, and it has been proven, despite the many discrepancies in the research, that both parents play an important effective role in child language development. Berko-Gleason asserts that â€Å"when men occupy a nurturant role they become increasingly sensitive to the needs and intentions of the child† (1975; 296), suggesting that fathers who adopt the primary caregiver role because their female partners are in employment, are more sensitive to their children’s needs, assumingly so because they spend more time with them. The ‘Bridge Hypothesis’ and the ‘Differential Experience Hypothesis’ have been theorised based on the notion of sensitivity, proposing that mothers are more sensitive of a child’s needs as they are found to ‘scaffold’ children’s utterances more often. Fathers on the other hand, are seen as more insensitive interlocutors in comparison, as they are generally found to provide children with a bigger linguistic challenge. Generalisations have been made in summary of the variables recorded by previous studies. It has been found that mothers address more speech to their young children than fathers, both in terms of mean number of utterances and conversational turns, asserting that mothers are more talkative. Dependant on context, it has been found that fathers are capable of producing the same number of utterances and turns in dyadic situations with a child, however there is consistency in the results in the fact that it has never been proven for fathers to speak more than mothers, neither in terms of mean number of utterances nor conversational turns, withholding the hypotheses mentioned above in the respect that fathers provide the child with a more challenging conversational partner as a result of not making themselves as linguistically dependable as mothers. Mothers seem to take more responsibility for sustaining a conversation through their more frequent vocalisations. Differences between mothers and fathers have appeared in a number of areas of research, including vocabulary and use of directives. The vocabulary of fathers is said to be more diverse and lexically demanding which contributes to the challenging linguistic behaviour fathers demonstrate towards children. Fathers are said to direct more imperatives at children than mothers, and fathers are said to direct more imperatives to their sons than their daughters. This distinction between the behaviour directed at children is attributed in relation to the socialisation of gender as males in society are said to need to become accustomed to giving and taking orders. Fathers are more likely to use an imperative whereas mothers are said to frame their directives in interrogative form. Fathers are said to engage in such usage because they adopt the role of disciplinarian. Research shows that mothers and fathers use sentence types to relatively the same proportions, using declarative and interrogative sentences most frequently. It is commonly postulated that when repetitions occur in parental input, fathers are more likely to repeat their child’s preceding utterance whereas mothers are more likely to repeat themselves. It is generalised that mothers make more corrections to their children’s speech than fathers and mothers are significantly more probable to produce grammatically incomplete utterances. The speech of mothers is also expected to contain more expansions: a notable contributor in aiding the ‘scaffolding’ of children’s utterances, therefore showing support for the ‘Bridge Hypothesis’. Inconsistencies have occurred across numerous variables that have been tested, including questions and MLU. Given the somewhat sceptical findings of previous studies in the area, the aim of this study is to provide a clearer insight through my own investigation of gender-specific CDS, which will hopefully shed light on the discrepancies that have occurred. Previous research has shown that findings between parental input can largely differ based on the situation they occur in (dyadic or triadic) and the context in which the interaction is held (free-play or structured play), therefore these factors will remain constant in this study. The nucleus of this analysis is the difference in gender-specific CDS styles. A mother and father each in dyadic interactions with a child of approximately two years old will be recorded and then the study will be extended in order to observe the same parents in a dyadic interaction with an older sibling. Few studies in the existing research have explored the nature of gender-specific CDS in this way; however Broen (1972) found that when mothers spoke to younger in comparison to older children they used a lower rate, fewer disfluencies, and smaller type-token ratios. They also used smaller vocabularies, but they repeated their utterances more frequently (Giattino Hogan 1975). Davidson and Snow (1996) suggest that fathers become better conversational partners as children get older. This is an area for examination in this study. Reviewing the variables of a number of previous investigations in order to highlight comparisons and discrepancies in their findings regarding parental speech styles has allowed me to establish a set of variables for analysis in my own investigation. Since very few conclusive results have been established by previous studies, my analysis will provide a clearer explanation to these somewhat ambiguous generalisations. Due to the inconsistent results of previous studies, the following research questions will be attempted: Do fathers use the same features of CDS as mothers? How, if at all, do the parental speech styles differ? and due to the lack of information regarding the differences in parental speech styles in families with more than one language-learning child, the following question will be aimed at: Do parents direct the same linguistic behaviour towards an older and younger sibling? In line with the ‘Fine-Tuning’ hypothesis, it is expected to find that parents ‘fine-tune’ their speech more towards the younger of the siblings. Prosodic features are expected to become seldom used to the older of the siblings and it can also be hypothesised that the parent’s MLU will increase with the older child.   Since the ‘Bridge Hypothesis’ and ‘Differential Experience Hypothesis’ entail that mothers are   more sensitive interlocutors, my experimental hypothesis is that mothers will ‘fine-tune’ their speech more than fathers. If this is the case, it will entail the mother having a MLU score lower than the father’s and closer to the MLU of her children. The null hypothesis is identifiable if the mother and father do not produce significantly different measures of ‘fine-tuning’ or MLU. It is important to note that individual differences may arise in the study and have a considerable b earing on the results, e.g. culture, socioeconomic class or parent’s level of education. CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY   The purpose of this study was to analyse the speech of a male and female parent in dyadic interactions with their language-learning children, in order to produce a cross-sectional analysis which will lead to answering the central question of whether fathers as well as mothers use the features of CDS. The following general observation questions were considered: Do fathers use the same features of CDS as mothers? How, if at all, do the parental speech styles differ? Do parents direct the same linguistic behaviour towards an older and younger sibling? 3.1 – PILOT STUDY Prior to the actual recordings, I conducted a small preliminary investigation using only two of the subjects (the mother and child O) in order to test whether the ‘Observer’s Paradox’ would arise. I wanted to be present for the recording; however, as a consequence of this child Y was not responsive to her mother’s speech. 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At the time of the recording, child Y was 1;10 and child O was 4;4. I chose the children in my investigation not to be of similar ages so that they were not at similar stages of language development. Child Y was at the one-word stage, occasionally using two-word utterances and child O was at the grammatical stage, producing utterances relatively adult-like. Both of the parents in the study were of similar ages, there was an eighteen month age gap between them. In order to make accurate comparisons with the existing results identified in the literature review section, I ensured I maintained the social class variable of the majority of those studies by recording a family representative of middle class. In terms of occupation, the mother is a part-time psychiatric consultant and the father is a full-time college lecturer , therefore both parents are university-educated. In the means of family structure, I ensured that the parents in the family I observed were the biological parents of both children, i.e. to ensure that neither child O nor child Y were step children to either parent through divorce and remarriage as atypical linguistic behaviour may be expected from a non-parent towards a child and vice versa. 3.3 – DATA COLLECTION The speech of the family was recorded on a digital voice recorder. All recording was done during periods of free-play and all interactions took place in the family play-room, as this is the area where the subjects engage in free-play on a daily basis. I obtained four recordings in total: the mother and father both in a dyadic interaction with each child. Each separate recording consisted of at least twenty minutes of speech. The lengths of the recordings slightly differed in total as the children terminated their play sessions at different times; however, I extracted exactly fifteen minutes from each recording for analysis. I anticipated that the adult subjects may have been inhibited to behave differently with anyone other than the subjects in the room; therefore the parents began the recording after I vacated the room. The inherent problem in such a recording is the subjects’ awareness of the recorder as the investigation had to be carried out obtrusively. This could have ha d a possible bearing on the naturalistic nature of the data; however none of the subjects seemed to be concerned that they were being recorded. In order to eliminate the possibility of the presence of the recorder having a bearing on my results, I overlooked the first two minutes of each recording as literature advises that most people forget about the recording as they engage in activities (Wray Bloomer 2006). Neither of the children were unfamiliar to the tape recorder as they had been recorded by their father in this way previously. The subjects were not given any special instructions in the means of expected behaviour and they were encouraged to ignore the presence of the tape recorder.   Throughout the session the parents and children engaged in spontaneous play: in activities such as a scrabble board-game, an ‘etch-sketch’ drawing toy, a wooden shapes toy, a plastic utensils game, an ‘aqua beads’ shape game, a ‘guess-who’ game, playing with a ball, building blocks and making a cup of tea. After the recording I gave the adult subjects a self-completion questionnaire (see appendix 2). Questionnaires are advantageous in the fact that they are efficient to administer, they eliminate interviewer effects and they are convenient for the respondents to complete. In order to eliminate respondent fatigue, I limited the questionnaire to eight questions and ensured that they were simple and unambiguous. I asked two open questions in order to obtain qualitative data. 3.4 – DATA TRANSCRIPTION After obtaining the four separate recordings of conversational data, I made a copy of the original recordings. I discarded the first two minutes of each recording before analysis, in order to eliminate possible effects caused by the ‘Observer’s Paradox’. I decided to transcribe exactly fifteen minutes of each recording in order to ensure a fair test overall. I orthographically transcribed the data so that the speech could be represented in order to be analysed structurally and accurately (see appendix 1). Using the set of variables below, I then analysed the data. 3.5 VARIABLES In order to answer the observation questions mentioned above, the following variables were measured: Communicative Turn (CT) this is analysed as everything a speaker says before the next speaker begins. This could be one word, one sentence or several sentences. Total number of utterance – number of utterances produced. Mean length of utterance (MLU) – measured by the total number of morphemes divided by the total number of utterances in the dyad. An utterance is a word or a string of words identified by a pause, grammatical completeness (Golinkoff and Ames 1979) or other indication of new thought. When counting MLU the following are counted as a single morpheme: a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   -s plural marker e.g. letter-s b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   -ed past tense marker e.g. finish-ed c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   -ing present participle marker e.g. smil-ing d)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     -s 3rd person regular tense marker e.g. plays-s e)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Possessive -‘s marker e.g. daddy’s bike f)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Compound words e.g. teapot g)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Proper names e.g. Hazel h)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Irregular past tense verbs e.g. went i)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Irregular plurals e.g. children j)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Diminutives e.g. horsy k)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Catenatives e.g. wanna l)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Contractions e.g. let’s, don’t and won’t (but the following contractions are counted as two morphemes e.g. she’s, he’ll, they’re, what’s, she’d, we’ve, can’t, aren’t) m)  Ã‚   Reduplications e.g. daddy daddy daddy are counted as one morpheme unless the repetition is for emphasis (Speech Therapy Information and Resources 2009-2010). n)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fillers e.g. mm, ah, oh are not counted as a morpheme Sentence types Declarative sentence – (including one-word declaratives) used to make a statement. Interrogative sentence – used to ask a question. Wh-questions – questions that employ the use of: what, when, where, why, who, whose, which or how. Yes/no questions – questions that require a yes or no answer from the hearer. Intonation questions – questions marked by a rise in intonation. Tag questions – a question attached to the end of a statement, usually seeking confirmation. Imperative sentence – used to give command, request or give instructions of some kind – orders, warnings advice etc. Exclamatory sentence – emphatic sentences used to express strong emotion. Repetitions Self-repetition Repetition of child    Grammatically incomplete sentence – sentences involving the deletion of some words. Sentences which could be categorised in more than one way were placed in the highest category in the order of priority list: repetition, interrogative, declarative, imperative, exclamatory, and grammatically incomplete (Giattino Hogan 1975). CHAPTER 4: RESULTS    MOTHER FATHER CHILD Y CHILD O    CHILD Y CHILD O CHILD Y CHILD O MOTHER FATHER MOTHER FATHER Conversational Turns (CT)729463134776294132Total utterances1821751632118462104152Total number of morphemes794104954995012593571660Mean length of utterance (MLU)4.3663.374.51.491.55.494.34Declaratives42422469  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Wh-questions3234916  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Yes/no questions12321136  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Intonation Questions7291130  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tag questions5503  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Imperatives1585726  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Exclamations 35162714  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parental self repetitions101164  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Repetitions of child 227612  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Grammatical incompletions2121    TABLE 4.1: Summary of means and amounts of parental speech and child vocalisation. Most of the measures used in the speech analysis were simple counting procedures, using relatively straightforward criteria. In order to ensure reliability in the findings, I recalculated the data twice which removed any data verification errors that had occurred the first time.    4.1 – THE AMOUNT OF PARENTAL SPEECH The parents‘ total utterances to child Y suggest that the mother and father direct a similar amount of utterances to the younger, in comparison to the older sibling. The results show that the mother produced approx 12 utterances per minute to child Y, while the father produced approx 11 utterances per minute to the same child. The parents’ total utterances to child O show a significant difference. The father was found to produce almost 2.5 more utterances per minute to child O than the mother. In terms of conversational exchange, there are conflicting findings in the means of conversational turns (CT). The mother was found to take 9 more CT’s than the father in the dyad with child Y, however she was found to take 30 fewer turns in the dyad with child O. Though it is not to assume that the father spoke more to child O on the whole, as although his total of utterances was greater, his turns were also shorter, shown by his MLU in the dyad with child O (4.5), which wa s 25% less than the mother’s rate of MLU to the same child (6), as show in FIGURE 4.1a. The father also made fewer utterances (19 less than his partner) and addressed shorter utterances to child Y, which is again evidential in his MLU. This is contrary to existing research and hypotheses that propose fathers to be more challenging, demanding interlocutors than mothers. All in all, the mother consistently talked more than the father, speaking for 68% of her dyadic interaction with child Y and 63% of her dyadic interaction with child O. 4.2 COMPLEXITY The complexity of parental speech In terms of MLU, the mother and father were found to show a significant difference. The father’s MLU to child O is almost equal to the mothers MLU to child Y (as shown in FIGURE 4.1a). Although the MLU of the parents conflicts with evidence from previous research, the MLU of each parent in the separate dyads correlates with the MLU of each child in the specific dyad (as shown in FIGURE 4.2a). Albeit the exception to this finding is the dyadic interaction involving the mother and child Y, which stipulates the mother’s MLU to be triple the child’s measure. This finding contradicts the ‘Fine-Tuning’ hypothesis. The complexity of children’s speech Although child Y made more conversational turns with the mother than the father, her MLU value was the same with both parents. It is plausible to say from this finding that the father elicited more complex speech from child Y as although she measured the same MLU with both parents, she made 22 fewer utterances with her father. The reverse can be said for child O. The findings show that the mother elicited more complex, longer speech from child O than the father, due to the fact child O’s MLU value with her mother is over 1 morpheme per utterance longer than with her father and she produced 48 less utterances in total with her mother. Repetitions FIGURE 4.2b shows the percentages of repetitions used in each of the dyads. The repetitions made by the mother were more consistent than the repetitions made by the father. The majority of the mother’s repetitions were repetitions of the child rather than herself. The findings regarding the repetitions made by the father show an inconsistency as it was found that the father made 3 times as many self repetitions with child Y than he did with child O. 4.3 – THE FUNCTIONS OF PARENTAL SPEECH TABLE 4.3a presents the proportions of utterance types employed in the parental speech. It shows the proportion of each utterance type as a percentage of the total utterances in each dyad. Totals add up to 100 per cent as sentences which could be categorised in more than one way were placed in the highest category in the order of a priority list (see methodology). FIGURE 4.3b shows the findings in table 2. FIGURE 4.3a shows the frequency of the utterance types in each dyadic interaction in the form of a clustered graph.    MOTHER FATHER CHILD Y CHILD O CHILD Y CHILD O Declaratives 23% 24% 15% 33% Wh-questions 18% 19% 5% 7.5% Yes/no questions 7% 18% 7% 17% Intonation questions4%16.5%7%14%Tag questions3%3%0%1%Imperatives8%4.5%35%12%Exclamations19%9%16%7%Parental self repetitions5%1%10%2%Repetitions of child12%4%4%6%Grammatical incompletions1%1%1%0.5%                                           TABLE 4.3a: Summary of distribution of utterance types in parental speech (% of total utterances). The mother used the same proportion of declaratives in both of her dyads with the children. These included one-word declaratives and statements. In contrast, 15% of the total utterances produced to child Y by the father were declaratives, as were 33% of the total utterances he produced to child O. Examples produced by the father included: â€Å"I’ve got three now† â€Å"one† Examples produced by the mother included: â€Å"I didn’t hear you properly that time† â€Å"Uh-huh†    MOTHER FATHER    CHILD Y    CHILD O    CHILD Y    CHILD O    Number of questions asked Percentage of total of questions asked in dyad (%) Number of questions asked Percentage of total of questions asked in dyad (%) Number of questions asked Percentage of total of questions asked in dyad (%) Number of questions asked Percentage of total of questions asked in dyad (%) Total questions 56 100 31 85 Wh-questions 32 57% 34 34% 9 30%

The Ultimate Value of Promoting Respect in Schools

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